Effective Communication Essay Example for Free

Effective Communication Essay Effective communication between team members is a desire to have within all criminal justice organizations. Communication cannot only be done verbally; it can also be done nonverbally with the use of body language as well. Another major component in effective communication is having the ability to know the difference between listening and hearing. Even though effective communication is vital to the success of criminal justice organizations, there are many barriers to overcome such as: language barriers, communication involving semantics, and the ability to listen. The Process of Verbal Non-Verbal Communication and the Associated Components of Each There are two types of effective communication channels in the criminal justice field that are known as formal and informal channels. According to (www.businessdictionary.com), â€Å"A type of verbal presentation or document intended to share information and which conforms to established professional rules, standards and processes and avoids using slang terminology. The main types of formal communication within a business are downward where information moves from higher management to subordinate employees, upward where information moves from employees to management and horizontal where information is shared between peers.† In the criminal justice organization, the formal communication channel goes upwards within the chain of command based on the ranking system. The military is a perfect example because they are ran through a chain of command system where they are forced to utilize the formal communication channel. According to (www.ehow.com), â€Å"Formal channels of communication are within the hierarchy of the criminal justice field. The chain of command directs the formal channels of upward, downward, and horizontal communication through the  levels of command. The organizations hierarchy establishes procedures related to communication within the levels of command. The directors dictate the means of communication and to whom each subordinate is to report. The hierarchy sets the structure and atmosphere through written policies and procedures.† An example of an informal channel of communication would be a conversation between two people at work about a particular individual and their work habits. There is no documentation of the entire conversation and it is not formal. The Difference Between Listening Hearing in Communication There are a few key differences between listening and hearing. When you actively listen you are able to comprehend what the person is saying and able to remember it along with giving an accurate response. The meaning of hearing is one of the five senses. According to (www.differencebetween.info), â€Å"Hearing is one of the five senses of a person and it is the ability to perceive sound by detecting vibrations through an organ such as the ear. According to Merriam-Webster, hearing is â€Å"the process, function, or power of perceiving sound; specifically: the special sense by which noises and tones are received as stimuli.† In hearing, vibrations are detected by the ear and then converted into nerve impulses and sent to the brain. A person who is unable to hear has a condition known as deafness. Hearing occurs even in sleep, where the ear processes the sounds and passes them on to the brain, but the brain does not always react to the sound. Listening also known as ‘active listening’ is a technique used in communication, which requires a person to pay attention to the speaker and provide feedback. Listening is a step further than hearing, where after the brain receives the nerve impulses and deciphers it, it then sends feedback. Listening requires concentration, deriving meaning from the sound that is heard and reacting to it. Listening is a process of communication, where if the person is not listening it can cause a break in communication. Listening is defined by Merriam ­-Webster as, â€Å"to hear something with thoughtful attention: give consideration.† When you are an active listener you are giving the speaker the upmost respect because it shows that you truly care about what they are saying. This is the best way to effectively communicate and it he lps build the relationship between the two individuals who are engaging in conversation. Criminal Justice Language Barriers Solutions to Barriers Just a few weeks ago a San Diego Naval Hospital bomb scare occurred due to a language barrier in communication. Nobody was able to understand two Spanish men that approached the gate to deliver a package. According to (www.sandiegoreader.com), â€Å"When questioned by the sentries on duty, a language barrier prompted uncertainty about the mens intentions, specifically regarding a package in their possession. Notice went up through the chain of command, and orders came back to follow precautions used in case of a bomb threat. The gate was put on lockdown, and bomb-sniffing dogs were called in. Since the area immediately surrounding the gate lies outside Navy jurisdiction, a notice went out to police for assistance. The SDPD complied by setting up a blast perimeter, closing access to Florida and — according to an eyewitness — Pershing Drive north of 26th Street and south of Upas. No residential streets were affected by the closures.† Eventually a border patrol offi cer came to aid the Naval Police and translated the words of the two Spanish men. They were not a threat at all and were merely just delivering hospital items to the base. A solution to this problem must take place to avoid an issue like this happening again. A quick solution to this issue is to train all security personnel on navy bases so they can understand multiple languages and/or having personnel who already speak multiple languages guard the front gate. If all personnel were able to understand all languages then this problem will have never happened. A situation like this is an embarrassment and is also can fall into the lines of harassment if the two men wanted to press charges. References Business Dictionary. (2014, Jan 6). Formal Channels of Communication. Retrieved from http://www.businessdictionary.com Difference Between. (2013, December 12). Difference Between Hearing and Listening. Retrieved from http://www.differencebetween.info San Diego Reader. (January 2, 2014). Language Barrier Prompts Naval Hospital Bomb Scare. Retrieved from http://www.sandiegoreader.com eHow. (2014, Jan 10). Formal and Informal Channels of Communication. Retrieved from http://www.ehow.com

career goal :: essays research papers

It has been my craving in every aspect of life to do things differently, chart my own path and tread in to uncharted territory. Nine years back, this what made me join a course in bachelor of marine engineering at MERI, the only institute in India exclusively offering such a course. Idea of venturing in to high sees, braving the storms with only handful of resources and almost completely cut off from out side world made adrenaline pumping in to my veins. All this along with opportunity to get exposure to highly sophisticated systems on board ships, which was fodder for my technical bent of mind seemed perfect for my adventure seeking personality. Through out my career progression I have made such decisions like joining LNG shipping pool of my company and seeking extra professional qualification of eligibility to sail on diesel engine driven as well as turbine driven ships Looking back after nine years, I could not feel more assured that at that time, I made the right choice. My unusual combination of experiences sets me worlds apart from not only a normal engineer but also from a marine engineer at similar position. Working for a big shipping company, exclusively on international assignments in high tech, capital intensive and rising LNG industry is the kind of job I had envisioned at the time of finishing my graduation. I could not have come here without that choice I made back then. As suited to my challenge seeking nature I foresee my own career moving in the direction of handling higher responsibilities in the core business, initially from an advisory perspective (i.e. consulting) and ultimately from a leadership role within a manufacturing entity, preferably a start-up venture. With Asia, especially India rising on global corporate battlefield I want to be where global language and intercultural/personal skills make the difference, where technological know-how supports innovative ideas. This is where I can make my best contribution. In short, I want to be where the action and the challenges are. Thus the reasons why I want to go back to university and do a MBA to get myself a thorough business background to understand not only my career experiences but other students as well and put them in to business context and have a holistic view of the organization. The knowledge I will gain should help facilitate a career change. After extensive work in high tech LNG shipping industry, I want to transfer to shore based industry.

Personnel Management Research in Agribusiness

Personnel Management Research in Agribusiness Vera Bitsch Department of Agricultural, Food, and Resource Economics Michigan State University, 306 Agriculture Hall, East Lansing, Michigan, 48824 Tel: +517-353-9192, Fax: +517-432-1800, [email  protected] edu Paper presented at the 19th Annual World Forum and Symposium of the International Food and Agribusiness Management Association, Budapest, Hungary, June 20-23, 2009 Acknowledgements This study was supported by the USDA Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service, Hatch project #0191628. The author would also like to thank the Elton R.Smith Chair in Food & Agricultural Policy at Michigan State University for supporting the participation at the IFAMA World Forum and Symposium. Copyright 2009 by Vera Bitsch. All rights reserved. Readers may make verbatim copies of this document for non-commercial purposes by any means, provided that this copyright notice appears on all such copies. Personnel Management Research in Agr ibusiness (Executive Summary) One of the challenges faced by agribusinesses in the 21st century is the attraction, motivation, and retention of sufficient and qualified labor.However, personnel management research has mostly focused on other industries. Accordingly, agribusiness managers have little to rely on, when developing personnel policies and procedures. Once a business has grown beyond the labor capacity of the immediate family, personnel management becomes an issue and practices developed for large corporations do not always scale down well to smaller businesses or may not fit the agribusiness environment. This paper reviews the foci and results of personnel management research in the United States and in Canada, but results are likely applicable beyond these two countries.The analysis concentrates on publications analyzing personnel management publications, largely excluding labor market, immigration, and similar analyses. The unit of analysis is the business, not the mark et, society, or other institution. The review covers agribusiness and agricultural economics journals, and also animal science and horticultural science journals. Research reports and conference papers are included when accessible. With few exceptions, personnel management was virtually absent from agribusiness and agricultural economics research before 1990.Since then research methods cover the full range from in-depth, unstructured interviews and group discussions, through interview or moderator guide based approaches, up to fully structured surveys. Several broadly based results are emerging. First, many agribusiness managers perceive their personnel management competencies as a weakness, in particular during periods of organizational growth. Second, experienced managers typically have an adequate conceptual frame of the personnel management functions, but with respect to the details gaps and misconceptions persist.Third, the peculiar circumstances of agribusiness and farm work r equire specific skill sets and beginning managers could benefit from targeted training. Fourth, although compensation is important, employees’ job satisfaction and retention can be increased with inexpensive measures, such as feedback and appreciation. Fifth, the relationship between personnel management practices and financial success measures is complicated and difficult to assess. Few personnel management studies have been able to provide evidence of a substantial relationship between any particular personnel management practice and profit, or even productivity. Personnel Management Research in Agribusiness Problem Statement One of the challenges faced by many agribusinesses and farms in the 21st century is the attraction, motivation, and retention of sufficient and qualified labor. Although this problem is more pronounced in industrialized and developed economies, growing and transitional economies, including China, also face a lack of interest in agricultural work. In ad dition, personnel management research has mostly focused on other industries, neglecting agribusiness.Accordingly, agribusiness managers have little to rely on, when developing personnel policies and procedures for a growing business. Once a business has grown beyond the labor capacity of the immediate family, personnel management becomes an issue and practices developed for large corporations often times do not scale down well to smaller businesses or may not fit the agricultural or agribusiness environment. Farm Labor in the U. S. In 2007, U. S. hired farm labor comprised $21. 9 billion or 9. 1% of total production expenses. That was an increase in monetary expenses of $3. billion, compared to $18. 6 billion in 2002, but a decrease in percentage of expenses. In addition, contract labor amounted to $4. 5 billion in expenses or 1. 9% of total production expenses, up $1. 1 billion from 2002. Custom work and custom hauling, which includes machinery costs was up by $0. 8 billion at $4. 1 billion; 1. 7% of total production expenses (2007 Census of Agriculture). Hired labor was the third largest expense group behind purchased feed and purchased livestock and poultry. But farm labor expenses are not equally distributed regionally.According to Kandel, total farm labor expenses amounted to 22. 3% of the cash receipts in California, but only to 2. 5% in Iowa in 2006. The top five states in terms of payroll expenses were California, Florida, Texas, Washington, and Oregon. They account for 42. 8% of the expenditure on hired labor in the U. S. Runyan reported that 1910-19 the share of family labor of total farm employment was 75%; 1990-99 this share had declined to 64%. While total farm employment is declining, the role of hired workers is increasing with increasing farm sizes.However, farm wages rank near the bottom of all occupational groups, second only to private household work (Runyan). This fact may be ameliorated, at least in part, by lower cost of living expenses in rural communities (Gisser and Davila). By agricultural specialization, hired labor is most important for horticultural 3 operations (tree nurseries, ornamentals, fruit, and vegetables) and in dairy farming, followed by livestock and poultry farming; hired labor is least important in field crops.Objectives This paper reviews the foci and results of personnel management research in agriculture and agribusiness in the United States and in Canada, but results are likely applicable beyond these two countries. The goal of the review is to extract the lessons learned and derive guidance for both agribusiness management practice and future research. The specific objectives are to (1) analyze the state of the art of personnel management research in agribusiness, in particular agricultural production, including an analysis of research methods; (2) determine the ain themes with respect to (a) research questions and (b) empirical fields; and (3) summarize empirical results to (a) provide a f oundation for manager training and decision support and (b) serve as a roadmap to future research projects. Procedures Geographically, this paper focuses on the United States and Canada and the review is limited to publications in English. The analysis concentrates on publications analyzing personnel management questions, largely excluding labor market, migration, immigration, and similar analyses.Labor market, migration, and immigration studies are important to understanding the agricultural labor problem and a considerable amount of work has been done on these questions (see, e. g. , Devadoss and Luckstead; Ise and Perloff; Martin and Taylor; Taylor; Tran and Perloff; Walters, Emerson, and Iwai). Less work has been published on personnel management functions and the use of different management practices in agribusiness. Personnel management functions include practices to recruit, train, manage, organize, evaluate, compensate, discipline, and terminate employees, as well as, questi ons of job satisfaction, motivation, and retention.Therefore, the unit of analysis is the agribusiness or farm, not the market, society, or other macro institution. The review covers agribusiness and management journals, agricultural economics journals, and also animal science and horticultural science journals. In addition, research reports and conference papers (gray publications) are included when accessible and relevant. 4 Articles reporting on empirical research, as well as, review articles were content analyzed with respect to the objectives outlined above.A qualitative analysis method was used to determine the personnel management questions addressed, the research methods, the empirical field, the specific results with respect to the questions addressed, and the broader implications of each article. Only articles meeting the criteria summarized above are included in the discussion of the main themes and in the summary tables. Furthermore, although this paper is based on a com prehensive review, it cannot claim to include every study in this field. State of the Art Before 1990, personnel management was virtually absent from agribusiness and gricultural economics research (Howard and McEwan; Rosenberg and Cowen), with very few exceptions (e. g. , Adams, How, and Larson). For the agricultural field, personnel management research basically began in the early 1990ies, but many of these studies are difficult to access, because they have been published as conference or working papers, or in trade magazines, not in peer reviewed journals. Until the end of the 1990ies, studies remain few and common themes are yet to develop, with the possible exception of job attitudes, which appear as an early focus (e. . , Adams, How, and Larson). Additional themes emerging later include managers’ conceptualization of the personnel management functions, managers’ personnel management competencies and practices, and the relationship between personnel management pra ctices and organizational outcomes. Few studies focus on one particular personnel management function; more studies encompass a broad array of functions and the related management practices. Exceptions are studies of the management and preferences of migrant workers and of compensation (table 1).Compensation studies in agribusiness frequently are limited to a description of actual wages and their distribution, sometimes not including benefits, and not relating compensation to organizational outcome variables (see, e. g. , studies cited in Maloney and Milligan). Examples of compensation studies, which transcend this limitation, are a pay method and performance study (Billikopf and Norton), a study of the effect of compensation and working conditions on retention (Gabbard and Perloff), and studies of the relationship between wage, production technologies, and farm size (Hurley, Kliebenstein, and Orazem; Yu et al. . Gabbard and Perloff found that for the same monetary investment employ ee benefits increase the probability of retaining good workers more 5 than higher wages. Strochlic et al. also found benefits to increase retention. No relationship between wages and retention rates was found by Miklavcic, as well as Strochlic et al. Considering that, regardless of the personnel management model used (see Delery and Doty for the universalistic, contingency, and configuration models), specific management practices cannot e considered to function in isolation and independent of other practices. Conclusions based on such studies of singular practices would be limited. Therefore, even researchers interested in a particular personnel management function and in comparing relevant practices for this function, would have to take a more integrative approach and describe other practices to provide context. Empirical evidence for the relevance of the integrative approach in agriculture and agribusiness was provided in Adams, How, and Larson; Chacko, Wacker, and Asar; and Muger a and Bitsch.Despite many commonalities between different branches of agricultural production, the type and conditions of work vary, as does the dependency on weather and growth cycles, e. g. , comparing vegetable production to swine production. Both researchers and practitioners therefore will primarily look at the research matching their current undertaking most closely. Studies vary in their empirical coverage, with respect to the scope of farming specializations included, from studies focused on a single specialization (e. g. , floriculture) to studies including multiple specializations (e. . , horticulture, including floriculture, fruit and vegetable production), and the scope of personnel management functions analyzed, from single function studies (e. g. , compensation; see above) to studies including selected or multiple functions (table 1). Dairy farming stands out as the specialization most likely to be researched. Given that hired labor plays an even larger role in horticu ltural production than in dairy farming, the reasons for the higher interest in personnel management in dairy research are not obvious.The Journal of Dairy Science published papers of a Symposium: Dairy Personnel Management as early as 1993. In addition to the dairy studies reported in table 1 that address personnel management specifically other studies of dairy farming included personnel management questions in broader studies of farm expansion (Bewley, Palmer, and Jackson-Smith; Hadley, Harsh, and Wolf; Stahl et al. ). These studies found that personnel management competencies are most important for the success of farm expansion, but these competencies are also most challenging for farm managers.After an expansion, managers are more likely to use formal practices with respect to all major personnel management functions (Stahl et al. ), but some 6 problems, such as communication, persist (Hadley et al. ), although managers spend more time on personnel management. Also, personnel ma nagement education for large dairy farms has been emphasized as an opportunity for extension programming (Brasier et al. ).A relatively new arena of research, which cuts across different agricultural specializations, is the interface of personal management and sustainable or organic production. The questions being asked include whether sustainable and organic agriculture are inherently beneficial to employees, whether the commitment to sustainability does or should include a social component, and whether a fair labor certification approach would be beneficial to producers (e. g. Shreck, Getz, and Feenstra; Strochlic and Hamerschlag; Strochlic et al. ). Although a majority of certified organic farmers in California believe that organic agriculture is more socially sustainable than conventional agriculture, there is little support to include criteria on working conditions in the organic certification (Shreck, Getz, and Feenstra). On the other hand, Strochlic et al. found considerable interest in a fair labor certification (59% of respondents).Research Methods of Empirical Studies Considering the early stage of personnel management research in agribusiness, research methods were expected to be mostly exploratory and qualitative (Bitsch 2000 and 2005). However, research methods cover the full range from in-depth, unstructured interviews and group discussions, through interview or moderator guide based approaches, up to fully structured surveys administered at the business site or off-site one-on-one or in a group setting, over the phone, or mailed questionnaires (table 2).Fornaciari and Dean found a similar phenomenon in the study of religion, spirituality, and management, where research methods also include many quantitative approaches, despite the early stage of the research field. Reasons for the seemingly early venture into highly structured and quantitative research approaches are more likely to be caused by expectations set up in the qualification process of researchers, professional pressures regarding publication outlets, and differing prestige of certain research approaches in researchers’ professional fields than by research considerations.Although, this review of studies of personnel management in production agriculture and agribusiness cannot claim completeness, the number of studies employing unstructured or moderately structured methods (first two columns in table 2) appears lower than the number of studies employing highly or very highly structured methods (last two columns in table 2). 7However, even many of the quantitative, highly structured studies did not attempt (or accomplish) representative sampling and, therefore, their generalizability can only be judged based on their descriptions of the research approaches and the methods used, and the comparison of results across studies. As a result, researchers and practitioners planning to use studies of either research approach may need to analyze the original sources a nd pay close attention to details, before evaluating the applicability of their results to a different context.Most studies rely on a single method for data collection and multi-method studies are rare. An exception is the case study approach of best management practices by Strochlic and Hamerschlag that employed a variety of methods including semi-structured interviews with farm managers, focus groups with employees, and informal interviews with key informants. Multimethod approaches are likely to yield more valid results, due to the method triangulation involved.The method used most often by personnel management researchers in production agriculture and agribusiness is a survey questionnaire (table 2). Questionnaires are administered in a variety of ways, most frequently in person, which is more likely to garner to reliable results than mailed questionnaires, given the sensitivity of many personnel management questions, but also requires more resources. The number of studies using a mailed questionnaire is surprisingly high, considering the difficulty of developing a questionnaire that is fully understood by potential research participants.Other methods used frequently are moderately structured interviews either in an individual setting or set up as group discussions. Although resource intensive, these latter approaches are more likely to gather reliable data and allow for in-depth study of research questions than the more highly structured approaches, given the early stage of the field, the lack of common understanding of personnel management terms of potential research participants and researchers, and the multitude of interactions etween personnel management practices. Managers’ Conceptualization of Personnel Management Functions As early as 1967, Adams, How, and Larson observed that some farmers seem to have much fewer difficulties in finding and keeping the workforce they needed than other farmers in a comparable situation. Their research showed that this difference was not a chance occurrence, but that these farmers had invested considerably in the relationships with their workforce and carefully developed their personnel management practices.Similarly, Rosenberg and Cowen 8 found dairy managers’ assumptions about their workforce to correlate with their milk output, and suggest that those assumptions guide the choice of organizational structure and the management practices. Hence, it may be concluded that managers’ perception of which personnel management functions need to be given attention and which practices are available to them, will be the determinants of their management choices.After 2000, a renewed effort to delineate the field of agricultural personnel management resulted in three studies using focus group discussions to identify management practices in different areas of agricultural production and services, to describe their advantages and drawbacks from managers’ perspective and to critica lly review these practices. As a research method, focus group discussions are useful to integrate research and extension goals.The interaction between research participants and between research participants and the researchers triggers learning processes. In addition, relationships are developed and reinforced, which not only increase openness during the research process, but encourage participation in educational programs. During the research process, knowledge deficits can be diagnosed (Bitsch 2004). Bitsch und Harsh convened five focus groups with managers and owners of greenhouses, tree nursery operations, and landscape operations in Michigan.The study showed that horticultural managers conceptualize personnel management and its challenges and opportunities along the management process: recruiting and selection, training and development, performance appraisal and discipline, careers and relationships, and compensation. For the research participants, hiring immigrants and labor l egislation were also important HRM topics. In addition, Bitsch et al. convened four focus groups with dairy farmers and managers.Their perceptions of personnel management functions were similar to the horticultural study, and differences were mostly due to the more seasonal character of labor needs in the earlier study. Discipline was more important in dairy farming, because the continuous availability of work creates the need for terminating and replacing some employees who do not perform at the expected level. Seasonal operations often deal with these employees by providing less work to them, laying them off before the end of the season, and not recalling them for the following season.While horticultural managers considered working conditions mostly as an image problem in recruiting, to dairy managers working conditions were a permanent stress on employees. 9 Labor laws and regulations were less important in dairy farming, because few operations had their practices audited by gove rnment agencies at the time of the study. Finally, Bitsch and Olynk (2008) convened six focus groups with owners and managers of pork farms in Kansas and Michigan and reanalyzed the transcripts of the second study.Results of this study served to refine the framework of agricultural personnel management developed based on the first two studies. The most significant extension is an additional set of personnel management practices regarding the performance management function. Performance management describes the daily, informal interaction between managers and employees, including informal feedback, task-related communication, setting priorities, and dealing with problems. Although these practices are important in the day-to-day management processes, there has been little discussion about them in the literature.Also, working conditions were extended to include the organizational structure, and the social environment at work was established as another arena to be monitored and consciou sly managed. The resulting framework of agricultural personnel management includes eleven management functions: recruiting, selection, hiring immigrant employees, training, working conditions and organizational structure, social environment, performance management, discipline, performance appraisal, compensation, and labor law and regulation.Managers’ Personnel Management Competencies and Practices In a recent study, Stup, Holden, and Hyde identified competencies in different management areas on the senior and the middle management level of dairy farms through group discussions and then surveyed different managers about their comfort level with respect to these competencies. While managers were generally confident about their competencies, senior managers were least confident about their personnel management competencies (4. 95 on a 7-point Likert scale, 1=very low, 7=very high, n=41). Middle mangers ranked themselves second lowest in personnel management competencies (4. 1, n=22) and lowest in community service and public relations (4. 05, n=20). Bitsch and Olynk (2007) developed a typology of required personnel management skills for successful management in animal agriculture based on ten focus groups with dairy and pork farmers and managers. The typology consists of five skill sets: motivator, housekeeper, model employee, counselor, and change agent. This typology shows a number of commonalities with 10 the Competing Values Framework, used in general management education (Faerman, Quinn, and Thompson), but also industry specific differences.The motivator with the ability to train and motivate others, and to provide constructive feedback and the housekeeper with the ability to control, to lead, and to discipline others build the core of agricultural personnel management skills and also likely other production enterprises. In addition, the ability and willingness to be a model employee plays a surprisingly large role in agriculture. The function of the counselor, to support employees with their personal problems at work and beyond, was discussed less frequently by the research participants, but is necessary to prevent problems and to sustain employee productivity.The change agent initiates or implements innovations in the production process and was mentioned mostly by managers of larger farms. The authors point out that to be successful managers need to command a complete repertoire of skills including skills from each of the five types and not limit themselves to skills from only one type, for example, out of familiarity with certain behaviors (Hutt and Hutt). The role and the functions of middle management are a field of agricultural personnel management with few studies, but increasing importance.Not only did the share and impact of hired labor increase with increasing farm sizes, and personnel management became more important, but supervisors and middle managers are also playing a larger role. Billikopf (2001) interviewed far m supervisors in California and found them to struggle with personnel management tasks. Bitsch and Yakura employed a case study approach to develop a grounded theory of agricultural middle management (see Bitsch 2005, on grounded theory applications in agribusiness; see Glaser and Strauss on the foundations of grounded theory).The participating middle managers described an unexpectedly large number of different personnel management practices. Bitsch and Yakura suggested that these practices can be clustered into two basic types: traditional practices and participative practices. Traditional practices include reprimanding employees, orienting and training employees, monitoring and controlling employees, and dealing with conflict. Participative practices include accommodating employees (e. g. flexibility in schedules, task and team assignments), managing relationships with employees, providing information and goal setting, listening to employees, providing appreciation and feedback, r ewarding employees (non monetary), modeling work behavior, peer control, manager-induced team building, and training by coworkers. 11 Although this typology shows similarities with McGregor’s Theory X and Y, Bitsch and Yakura underline a significant difference. For the participating middle managers, using traditional or participative practices was not correlated with individuals.Each manager used both traditional, as well as, participative practices. The authors suggest that management success corresponds rather with the number of practices individual managers command than with the type of practices they use more frequently. McGregor had assumed that participative managers would be more successful. Bitsch and Yakura pointed out that some managers did use few practices, whereas others were using the full breadth of the described practices. Given that day-to-day management consists of many different management situations, anagers with a more complete repertoire are more likely to choose suitable practices. Employees’ Job Attitudes and Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction is considered both a goal in itself, as well as, a means to reduce turnover and increase motivation and performance. Although meta-studies found a smaller relationship between job satisfaction and these correlates than expected, several studies of job satisfaction in agriculture have been conducted during the past 50 years (see Bitsch and Hogberg). One of the more frequently applied models is the empirically grounded two-factor model by Herzberg et al.This model is particularly suited to structure the analysis of job attitudes and their context. Empirical evidence that indeed job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are caused differently as predicted by the Herzberg et al. model is scant (Bitsch 2007). Independent of the theoretical models and the research methods several common results emerge from studies of job attitudes in agriculture. Porter pointed out that half of the dairy far m employees surveyed in New Hampshire saw appreciation of their work as the most important factor for their performance.In addition, they mentioned open communication with their supervisor, good records, and control of the work situation; Porter concluded that financial incentives are less important. Adams, How, and Larson found financial incentives to be important for a satisfactory employer-employee relationships, but stressed the importance of consideration for workers as human beings, taking into account personal problems of workers and helping to find solutions, and getting the right fit of worker and job (see previous section for middle managers’ practices for a similar finding).Bitsch (1996) in a study of tree nursery apprentices in Germany found that a large majority did desire higher wages, but almost half also 12 desired increased appreciation, more training, and more responsibility for their tasks. More training was also requested by Spanish speaking dairy farm emp loyees surveyed by Maloney and Grusenmeyer in New York. Surveying New York dairy farms, Fogleman et al. found that employees were least satisfied with the factor managers had most control over, that is performance feedback.Billikopf (2001) had found supervisors in all branches of agriculture to be mostly satisfied with their jobs. More detailed case studies with horticultural operations found for employees without supervisory responsibilities (Bitsch and Hogberg) and also for supervisors (Bitsch 2007) that the same factors seem to contribute to job satisfaction, as well as, to dissatisfaction, depending on their availability and characteristics.For both groups of employees, job security, achievement, technical competency of the superior, and personal relationships at the workplace were more likely to be perceived as positive. The work itself and organizational procedures and policies were perceived as ambiguous, contributing to both satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Compensation was perceived rather negative, more negative by employees without supervisory responsibilities than by supervisors; the latter are likely to be higher paid and more likely to receive benefits.Employees without supervisory responsibility perceived their work/life balance more positive than supervisors; the latter are also less satisfied with their working conditions. Mainly, this was due to the fact that employees with supervisory responsibilities were expected to be available for work whenever required, whereas employees without supervisory responsibilities were given more flexibility. An earlier study in Germany, also had found that horticultural employees value flexible scheduling and benefit arrangements (Bitsch, Bromm, and Schalich).Relationships between Personnel Management Practices and Organizational Outcomes Relationships between personnel management practices and various organizational outcomes, such as productivity (Rosenberg and Cowen), profit (Adams, How, and Larson), or co mpetitiveness (Chacko, Walker, and Asar; Mugera and Bitsch) have often been assumed, but infrequently been empirically researched. Owners and managers of agricultural operations also testify to a relationship between personnel management practices and farm level outcomes (Bitsch et al. Strochlic and Hamerschlag). The few studies attempting the empirical description and measurement of these relationships in production agriculture and agribusiness have found limited evidence. 13 Rosenberg and Cowen tested several personnel management practices’ and management assumptions’ impact on dairy farm productivity, including prevalence of Theory Y assumptions (McGregor), upward and downward responsibility diffusion, employee selection procedure, employee assessment criteria, and employee performance feedback, along with record use and herd size.In addition to record use, the authors found that Theory Y assumptions and the amount of feedback provided to employees impacted producti vity. Feedback has also been found to be important in employees’ job satisfaction (Bitsch 1996; Fogleman et al. ). Although management assumptions are likely to guide organizational structure, personnel management practice choice, and managers’ communication and interaction with employees, the study did not provide evidence of the relationship between assumptions and particular practices.Stup, Hyde, and Holden analyzed several personnel management practices of successful dairy farms in Pennsylvania, including milk quality incentives, performance reviews, employment of Spanish-speaking employees, use of standard operating procedures for milking, feeding, and reproduction tasks, continuing training, and use of job descriptions. Except for continuous training of employees, farm success did not differ significantly for farms using compared to farms not using these practices.While differences in definitions between Stup, Hyde, and Holden, and Rosenberg and Cowen and little overlap regarding the management practices researched, make it difficult to compare both studies, it should be noted that Stup, Hyde, and Holden did not find performance reviews to be significant. Chacko, Wacker, and Asar compared perceptions of agribusiness managers with respect to the contributions of different technological and personnel management practices to their competitiveness. In general, managers ranked technological practices higher than personnel management practices.However, job security and measures of training and development were among the top ranked management practices. Job security has also been emphasized in job satisfaction studies (Bitsch and Hogberg; Bitsch 2007). Training has been found to stand out in Stup, Hyde, and Holden and has also been emphasized in job attitude studies (Bitsch 1996; Maloney and Grusenmeyer). Based on managers’ perception of particular technological and personnel management practices, Chacko, Wacker, and Asar also aggregated pr actices in a factor analysis and regressed these factors on perceived competitiveness.The regression analysis showed personnel management 14 factors to contribute to a higher extent to different measures of competiveness than technological measures. The employee commitment factor (job security, sharing of profits and gains) stood out as contributing to most competitiveness measures. Mugera and Bitsch used a resource based perspective to analyze whether personnel management practices and the personnel itself constitute a competitive advantage for dairy farms (see Wright et al. for a general discussion of the application of the resource based theory to personnel management).The authors conducted case studies with dairy farms to analyze the integration of personnel management practices with each other (e. g. , practices regarding recruitment, selection, training, and compensation) and their outcomes (e. g. , voluntary turnover and termination). The case studies provided empirical examp les of the applicability of the resource based theory and evidence of the use of personnel management practices as a competitive advantage. The authors emphasize that studies of isolated management practices may lead to misleading results, due to the importance of the integration of practices with each other.Therefore, they recommend an integrative approach to researching and changing personnel management functions. Strochlic et al. surveyed 300 organic farms of various agricultural specializations with respect to their personnel management practices and organizational outcomes. They found significant relationships between an overall labor conditions score and 5- and 10-year retention rates, several occupational safety related practices and person-days lost due to accidents and injuries. No relationship was found between the surveyed management practices and supervisory costs or access to sufficient labor.Conclusions Personnel management research in agribusiness has increased over t he past 20 years, but the field is in an early stage of its development. Although agribusiness managers and organizations are demanding more decision support and training in personnel management, a rapid increase in research volume cannot be expected. The number of researchers giving this field more than cursory attention is relatively small compared to other agribusiness fields. Research funding is limited or unavailable for many agribusiness related personnel management questions. Peer reviewed articles are rare, because ublication outlets lack sensible reviewers for this field and many editors do not perceive it as a priority. 15 Notwithstanding the early stage of personnel management research in agribusiness, several broadly based results are emerging. First, many managers on different hierarchical levels perceive their personnel management skills as an area of weakness. This weakness becomes more visible during organizational growth, when additional employees are needed and tas ks change from production orientation to management, including management of more personnel. Growth processes have been researched mainly in dairy farming.Despite managers’ perception of a lack of personnel management competencies, participation rates in educational programs targeting such skills are not very high. Second, experienced managers typically have an adequate conceptual frame of the personnel management functions, and potential challenges and risks, at least regarding the big picture. They acknowledge all textbook personnel management functions (recruiting, selection, training, performance appraisal, compensation, discipline, and labor law and regulation), although they do not necessarily practice conscientious management with respect to all of these functions.For example, performance evaluation and discipline are rarely practiced. Also, gaps and misconceptions persist with respect to the details of each practice and potential alternative practices, and typically t he details decide the success of these practices. On the other hand, managers perceive a need for additional practices, rarely discussed in the literature, with respect to performance management, the social environment at the workplace, working conditions and organizational structure, as well as, hiring immigrant employees.Third, not only are the personnel management tasks outlined above numerous and often times difficult to balance, but they also result in challenging requirements with respect to the breadth and depth of management competencies and practices. Due to the peculiar circumstances of agricultural work, including long hours and family relationships, requirements of managers are not less stringent, but rather more demanding than in other sectors. Various new and unexpected tasks need to be mastered by newly promoted individuals who normally are not prepared to deal with these tasks.Learning management in agriculture is often limited to imitating the supervisor (Hutt and H utt) and training in many cases consists of â€Å"sink or swim† (Bitsch and Yakura). Many farms could improve their HRM practices through preparatory and accompanying training of their supervisors and managers. On the other hand, given their lack of training, managers have acquired and are using a surprisingly large number of traditional, as well as non traditional, HRM practices. 16 Fourth, compensation is important, as can be expected, considering the low level of agricultural wages compared to other occupational groups.However, incentive systems are not necessarily preferred by employees (Porter; Strochlic and Hamerschlag). In many cases, job satisfaction can be increased with inexpensive measures, such as providing more feedback and appreciation for tasks well done. Similarly, many farms could use training and employee responsibility for task performance to increase productivity and job satisfaction. On the other hand, in general, employees seem satisfied with their work and specifically with its context.Flexibility, especially for employees without supervisory responsibility, and positive personal relationships at work, particularly with superiors, contribute primarily to job satisfaction. As Adam, How, and Larson stated, â€Å"Such relationships seem to be the end result of a combination of policies and practices on the part of farmers and of a genuine liking of farm work and their employers on the part of employees† (p. 60). Fifth, the relationship between personnel management practices and financial measures of organizational success is complex and difficult to assess.Few personnel management studies in production agriculture and agribusiness have been able to provide evidence of a substantial relationship between any particular personnel management practice and profit, or even productivity. In particular, isolated practices do not usually show a statistical relationship with financial measures or even intermediate measures, such as produ ctivity, retention, or supervision costs. Although this is to be expected according to the integrative model of personnel management, it hinders the development of manageable research projects that can be analyzed and described in a standard form.Additional problems stem from the lack of data availability and changing conditions and actors who also continuously develop new practices and strategies. Compared to twenty years ago, when Howard and McEwan declared the absence of personnel management research in the agribusiness field, managers and researchers have more to build on today. A suitable framework of personnel management functions in production agriculture has been developed (Bitsch and Olynk 2008), on which manager training and future research can build.This framework must be broadened to encompass the agribusiness value chain as a whole. Groundwork has been done to describe and conceptualize what managers do in their day-to-day practice to motivate and lead employees, and wh ich competencies they need to acquire to be or become successful managers of personnel. In addition, a lot more is known about how 17 agricultural employees perceive their work and its context and where they see improvement needs. Nevertheless, differences and commonalities between production agriculture and the broader agribusiness environment need to be explored further.Also, future research will have to develop methods to establish the relationship between personnel management practices and organizational outcomes and to analyze specific practices in their organizational context more indepth. Education and training of production agriculture and agribusiness managers, both in the classroom and beyond, can and has started to build on a growing body of empirical research, instead of solely relying on results from other industries and large organizations, which may or may not be applicable in the industry settings.Specific results from many of the studies discussed have been used to develop personnel management programs for managers in production agriculture, both in terms of determining educational needs, as well as developing and organizing program content tailored to managers’ experience and understanding. A consequence of the availability of more suitable education and training programs is more conscientious and improved practical decision making with respect to personnel management.The lack of definitive empirical evidence notwithstanding, improved decision making in this important management arena is expected to lead to higher productivity and profits, and also better quality of life for managers, as well as employees. References Adams, L. P. , R. B. How, and O. L. Larson. Viable Farmer-Worker Relationships: A Study of Selected Cases I New York State in 1966. Bulletin 1019, Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, New York, 1967. Bewley, J. , R. W. Palmer and D. B. Jackson-Smith. â€Å"An Overview of Experiences of Wisconsin Dai ry Farmers Who Modernized Their Operations. Journal of Dairy Science 84 (2001):717-29. Billikopf, G. E. â€Å"High Piece Rate Wages Do Not Reduce Hours Worked. † California Agriculture 49 (1, 1995):17-8. —. â€Å"Crew Workers Split between Hourly and Piece-rate Pay. † California Agriculture 50 (6, 1996):5-8. —. â€Å"Interpersonal Communications Tops Concerns of Farm Supervisors. † California Agriculture 55 (5, 2001):40-3. Billikopf, G. E. and M. V. Norton. â€Å"Pay Method Affects Vineyard Pruner Performance. † California Agriculture 46 (5, 1992):12-3. 18 Bitsch, V. â€Å"Job Satisfaction during Apprenticeship. † Acta Horticulturae 429 (1996):97-102. —. Agricultural Economics and Qualitative Research: Incompatible Paradigms? † Forum: Qualitative Social Research 1 (1, 2000). Available at http://qualitative-research. net/fqstexte/1-00/1-00bitsch-e. htm. —. â€Å"Focus Group Discussions as a Research and Extension M ethod: The Case of Personnel Management Issues in Horticultural Businesses. † Acta Horticulturae 655 (2004):461-9. —. â€Å"Qualitative Research: A Grounded Theory Example and Evaluation Criteria. † Journal of Agribusiness 23 (Spring 2005):75-91. —. â€Å"Job Satisfaction in Horticulture: New Insights. † Acta Horticulturae 762 (2007):431-8. Bitsch, V. G. Abate Kassa, S. B. Harsh, and A. W. Mugera. â€Å"Human Resource Management Risks: Sources and Control Strategies Based on Dairy Farmer Focus Groups. † Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics 38 (April, 2006):123-36. Bitsch, V. , U. Bromm and C. Schalich. â€Å"Improving the Horticultural Workplace: Fringe Benefit Options in Germany. † Acta Horticulturae 639 (2004):339-45. Bitsch, V. , and S. B. Harsh. â€Å"Labor Risk Attributes in the Green Industry: Business Owners’ and Managers’ Perspectives. † Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics 36 (December, 2 004):731-45. Bitsch, V. and M. Hogberg. Exploring Horticultural Employees’ Attitudes toward Their Jobs: A Qualitative Analysis based on Herzberg’s Theory of Job Satisfaction. † Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics 37 (December, 2005):659-71. Bitsch, V. , and N. J. Olynk. â€Å"Skills Required of Managers in Livestock Production: Evidence from Focus Group Research. † Review of Agricultural Economics 29 (Winter, 2007):74964. —. â€Å"Risk-increasing and Risk-reducing Practices in Human Resource Management: Focus Group Discussions with Livestock Managers. † Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics 40 (April 2008):185-201. Bitsch, V. nd E. K. Yakura. â€Å"Middle Management in Agriculture: Roles, Functions, and Practices. † International Food and Agribusiness Management Review 10 (2, 2007):1-27. Brasier, K. , J. 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Faerman, S. R. , R. E. Quinn, and M. P. Thompson. Bridging Management Pract ice and Theory: New York State’s Public Service Training Program. † Public Administration Review 47 (July-August 1987):310-9. Fogleman, S. L. , R. A. Milligan, T. R. Maloney and W. A. Knoblauch. â€Å"Employee Compensation and Job Satisfaction on Dairy Farms in the Northeast. † Selected Paper, American Agricultural Economics Association Annual Meeting, Nashville, Tennessee, 1999. Fornaciari, C. J. and Dean, K. L. 2004. Diapers to car keys: The state of spirituality, religion and work research. Journal of Management, Spirituality and Religion 1(1), 7-33. Gabbard, S. M. and J.M. Perloff. â€Å"The Effects of Pay and Work Conditions on Farmworker Retention. † Industrial Relations 36 (October 1997):474-88. Gisser, M. and A. Davila. â€Å"Do Farm Workers Earn Less? An Analysis of the Farm Labor Problem. † American Journal of Agricultural Economics 80 (4, 1998):669-82. Glaser, B. G. and A. L. Strauss. The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Quali tative Research. Chicago: Aldine, 1967. Hadley, G. L. , S. B. Harsh and C. A. Wolf. â€Å"Managerial and Financial Implications of Major Dairy Farm Expansion in Michigan and Wisconsin. † Journal of Dairy Science 85 (2002):205364.Harrison, J. , J. McReynolds, T. O’Kane and B. Valentine. â€Å"Hired Labor on Wisconsin Dairy Farms: Trends and Implications. † Status of Wisconsin Agriculture ed. by E. Jesse, Department of Agricultural and Applied Economics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2008:58-68. Herzberg, F. , B. Mausner and B. B. Snyderman. The Motivation to Work. New York: Wiley, 1959. Howard, W. H. Human Resource Management on the Farm: Attracting, Keeping, and Motivating Labour on Ontario Dairy, Hog, Poultry, and Flower Farms. Report for the Canada/Ontario Agricultural Employment Committee (undated, unpublished).Howard, W. Y. and K. A. McEwan. â€Å"Human Resource Management: A Review of Applications to Agriculture. † Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics 37 (1989):733-42. Howard, W. Y. , K. A. McEwan, G. L. Brinkman and J. M. Christensen. â€Å"Human Resource Management on the Farm: Attracting, Keeping and Motivating Labor. † Agribusiness 7 (1991):11-25. Hurley, T. M. , J. Kliebenstein and P. F. Orazem. â€Å"The Structure of Wages and Benefits in the U. S. Pork Industry. † American Journal of Agricultural Economics 81 (1999):144-63. Hutt, M. J. Influences of Attachment in Everyday Problem Solving.PhD dissertation, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, 1991. Hutt, M. J. and G. K. Hutt. â€Å"Organizing the Human Resource: A Review of Centralization, Decentralization, and Delegation in Agricultural Business Management. † Journal of Dairy Science 76 (1993):2069-79. 20 Ise, S. and J. M. Perloff. â€Å"Legal Status and Earnings of Agricultural Workers. † American Journal of Agricultural Economics 77 (May 1995):375-86. 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Working Paper 730, Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of California, 1994.Runyan, J. L. â€Å"Hired F armworkers’ Earnings Increased in 2001 But Still Trail Most Occupations. † Rural America 17 (Fall 2002):66-73. Shreck, A. , C. Getz, and G. Feenstra. â€Å"Social Sustainability, Farm Labor, and Organic Agriculture: Findings from an Exploratory Analysis. † Agriculture and Human Values 23 (2006):439-49. Stahl, T. J. , B. J. Conlin, A. J. Seykora and G. R. Steuernagel. â€Å"Characteristics of Minnesota Dairy Farms That Significantly Increased Milk Production From 1989-1993. † Journal of Dairy Science 82 (1999):45-51. 21 Strochlic, R. and K. Hamerschlag.Best Labor Management Practices on Twelve California Farms: Toward a More Sustainable Food System. California Institute for Rural Studies (December 2005). Strochlic, R. , C. Wirth, A. F. Besada, and C. Getz. Farm Labor Conditions on Organic Farms in California. California Institute for Rural Studies (June 2008). Stup, R. E. , L. A. Holden and J. Hyde. â€Å"Case Study: Profiles of Management Competencies Ide ntified by Successful Dairy Managers. † The Professional Animal Scientist 23 (2007):728-37. Stup, R. E. , J. Hyde and L. A. Holden. â€Å"Relationships Between Selected Human Resource Management Practices and Dairy Farm Performance. Journal of Dairy Science 89 (2006):1116-20. Stup, R. E. and T. R. Maloney. Managing Hispanic Workers: Perceptions of Agricultural Managers. College of Agricultural Science, Cooperative Extension, Pennsylvania State University, 2003. Taylor, J. E. â€Å"Earnings and Mobility of Legal and Illegal Immigrant Workers in Agriculture. † American Journal of Agricultural Economics 74 (November 1992):889-96. Tran, L. H. and J. M. Perloff. â€Å"Turnover in U. S. Agricultural Labor Markets. † American Journal of Agricultural Economics 84 (May 2002):427-37. Walters, L. M. , R. D. Emerson, and N. Iwai. Proposed Immigration Policy Reform and Farm Labor Market Outcomes. † Selected Paper, American Agricultural Economics Association Annual Meet ing, Orlando, Florida, 2008. Wright, P. M. , M. C. Gary and M. Abagail. â€Å"Human Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage: A Resource-based Perspective. † International Journal of Human Resource Management 5 (1994):301-26. Yu, L. , T. M. Hurley, J. B. Kliebenstein, and P. F. Orazem. â€Å"Firm Size, Technical Change and Wages: Evidence from the Pork Sector from 1990-2005. Selected Paper, American Agricultural Economics Association Annual Meeting, Portland, Oregon, 2007. 2 Table 1. Scope of Personnel Management Studies and Personnel Management Functions Analyzed in Production Agriculture and Agribusiness Studies Focused on One Farm Specialization Studies Focused on One or Few Personnel Management Function(s) Dairy Immigrant employees Harrison et al. ; Maloney; Maloney and Grusenmeyer; Stup and Maloney Floriculture Recruiting and selection Maloney, Milligan, and Petracek Swine Compensation Hurley, Kliebenstein, and Orazem; Yu et al. Vineyards Compensation Billikopf and Norton Studies Encompassing Selected or Many Personnel Management FunctionsDairy Bitsch et al. ; Fogleman et al. ; Hutt; Hutt and Hutt; Mugera und Bitsch; Porter; Rosenberg and Cowen; Stup, Holden, and Hyde; Stup, Hyde, and Holden Swine Howard et al. Floriculture/Greenhouse Bitsch, Bromm, and Schalich Maloney and Milligan Horticulturea) Bitsch (2004); Bitsch (2007); Bitsch and Harsh; Bitsch and Hogberg; Bitsch and Yakura; Miklavcic; Strochlic and Hamerschlag Livestockb) Bitsch and Olynk (2007 and 2008) Studies Encompassing Multiple Farm Specializations Horticulturea) Compensation Billikopf (1995 and 1996) Compensation and working conditions Dunn; Gabbard and PerloffAgriculturec) Adams, How, and Larson; Billikopf (2001); Chacko, Tree nursery production Wacker, and Asar; Howard; Bitsch (1996) Rosenberg, Perloff, and Pradhan; Strochlic et al. a) Horticulture indicates two of more of the following specializations: floriculture and greenhouse, fruit, nuts, vegetable, and vineyard produc tion. b) Livestock indicates two of more of the following specializations: dairy, beef, swine, and poultry production. c) Agriculture includes at least one horticultural and one livestock specialization, as well as agribusiness. 23 Table 2.Degree of Structure of Research Approaches and Methods Used in Personnel Management Research in Production Agriculture and Agribusiness Unstructured or Little Structure Individual Methods Examples Unstructured interviewing Billikopf (2001)a); Hutta); Hutt and Hutta); Strochlic and Hamerschlag Moderately Structured Interview schedule Adams, How, and Larson; Bitsch (2007); Bitsch and Hogberg; Bitsch and Yakura; Howard; Mugera and Bitsch; Porter; Strochlic and Hamerschlag Highly Structured Administered questionnaires At the work site: Billikopf (1995 and 1996); Bitsch, Bromm, and Schalich; Fogleman et al. Howard et al. ; Maloney and Grusenmeyer; Rosenberg and Cowen; Stup, Hyde, and Holden At a housing site: Dunn Over the phone: Billikopf (1996); Malo ney; Maloney and Milligan; Maloney, Milligan, and Petracek; Strochlic et al. Group Methods Examples Unmoderated group discussion Stup and Maloney Moderated group discussion Very Highly Structured Mailed questionnaire Billikopf and Norton; Chacko, Wacker, and Asar; Hurley, Kliebenstein, and Orazem; Miklavcic; Rosenberg, Perloff, and Pradhan; Stup, Holden, and Hyde; Yu et al.Secondary data analysis: Gabbard and Perloff Questionnaire administered to individuals in a group setting Bitsch (2004); At school sites: Bitsch and Harsh; Bitsch (1996) Bitsch and Olynk (2007 and 2008); Bitsch et al. ; Harrison et al. ; Howard; Stup, Holden, and Hyde; Strochlic and Hamerschlag a) Studies where the method was not described sufficiently to categorize by the level of structure were categorized as unstructured. 24

Romantic Intellectuals Discuss 5 Romantic Era Intellectuals

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Tyndall Effect Definition and Examples

The Tyndall effect is the scattering of light as a light beam passes through a colloid. The individual suspension particles scatter and reflect light, making the beam visible. The amount of scattering depends on the frequency of the light and density of the particles. As with Rayleigh scattering, blue light is scattered more strongly than red light by the Tyndall effect. Another way to look at it is that longer wavelength light is transmitted, while shorter wavelength light is reflected by scattering. The size of the particles is what distinguishes a colloid from a true solution. For a mixture to be a colloid, the particles must be in the range of 1-1000 nanometers in diameter. The Tyndall effect was first described by 19th-century physicist John Tyndall. Tyndall Effect Examples Shining a flashlight beam into a glass of milk is an excellent demonstration of the Tyndall effect. You might want to use skim milk or else dilute the milk with a bit of water so you can see the effect of the colloid particles on the light beam.An example of how the Tyndall effect scatters blue light may be seen in the blue color of smoke from motorcycles or two-stroke engines.The visible beam of headlights in fog is caused by the Tyndall effect. The water droplets scatter the light, making the headlight beams visible.The Tyndall effect is used in commercial and lab settings to determine the particle size of aerosols.Opalescent glass displays the Tyndall effect. The glass appears blue, yet the light that shines through it appears orange.Blue eye color is from Tyndall scattering through the translucent layer over the eyes iris. The blue color of the sky results from light scattering, but this is called Rayleigh scattering and not the Tyndall effect because the particles involved are molecules in the air. They are smaller than particles in a colloid. Similarly, light scattering from dust particles is not due to the Tyndall effect because the particle sizes are too large. Try It Yourself Suspending flour or corn starch in water is an easy demonstration of the Tyndall effect. Normally, flour is off-white (slightly yellow). The liquid appears slightly blue because the particles scatter blue light more than red. References Human color vision and the unsaturated blue color of the daytime sky, Glenn S. Smith, American Journal of Physics, Volume 73, Issue 7, pp. 590-597 (2005).Sturm R.A. Larsson M., Genetics of human iris colour and patterns, Pigment Cell Melanoma Res, 22:544-562, 2009.

Thomas Hobbes And John Locke - 1676 Words

Thomas Hobbes and John Locke are social theorists who are both educated in Oxford University. However, they hold distinctive views on human nature, laws, societies, and government. Locke believes in democracy, which the power and the government are in the hands of people, but Hobbes believes in absolute monarchy, where the power and government are belong to the monarch. In this essay, I will mainly use comparison and contrast, first discuss their different opinions about human nature and laws because they are the building blocks to form the government, and then present their views on the formation and purposes of the government. Moreover, I will explain why Locke’s belief, I think, can form a better and more practical government than†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"The state of Nature has a law of Nature to govern it.† (Locke 638) In other words, human beings must accept a constrained freedom in order to survive. For example, any person who tends to communicate with the others must obey the rules of speaking that language. Otherwise, he is creating a random sound, and no one will know what he is saying. Contrary to Hobbes’s view, Locke implies that men are born in a family, which is a small society of people who are bonded together. The family establishes rules, and teaches skills to its decedents. One of the abilities that the family teaches is sharing, which is crucial to make the family survive. For example, sharing occurs when a family distributes food, which was originally owned by a few people in the family, to all the family members. Human nature is the fundamental element of building a government. At this point I think Locke’s view, that men are born and raised in a family, is more reasonable than Hobbes’s view, that men live in a solitary life in the beginning. Both Hobbes and Locke hold different belief of the law of nature. Whereas Locke believes that family establishes laws and orders to its people, Hobbes prop oses that there exist no law and justice with the absence of an absolute power; all men are free to do anything they want. Consequently, human beings will live in a world that is full of violence. â€Å"For where no covenant hathShow MoreRelatedJohn Locke And Thomas Hobbes886 Words   |  4 Pagesdiscuss the differences in political theories expressed by both John Locke and Thomas Hobbes. In, Leviathan, by Thomas Hobbes, and in, The Second Treatise of Government, by John Locke different theories of political legitimacy and definitions of the state of nature are described. The following paragraphs analyze multiple different points that are imperative to understanding these political theories. In the reading, Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes discusses what human existence is in the state of nature andRead MoreThomas Hobbes And John Locke911 Words   |  4 Pagessocial contract theory, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke established many of the founding ideals that contemporary Liberalism is based on. While the shared many similar positions, there are some key distinctions to be made between the arguments Hobbes and Locke make in Leviathan and Second Treatise of Civil Government, respectively. In this paper I will argue the differences between how each of them viewed the right of the subjects to revolt from the sovereign. Thomas Hobbes published his most famousRead MoreThomas Hobbes And John Locke Essay1441 Words   |  6 PagesEifling-Question 4 Hobbes and Locke During and after the English Revolution, a few philosophers expressed different views on their philosophical outlook and life experiences. Some of the most outstanding thinkers include Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. They had opposing views on governance matters, but the two, also, had striking similarities. In addition, the two represented an increasingly modernized European population that despised absolute kingship. Both Hobbes and Locke proposed a conceptionRead MoreJohn Locke And Thomas Hobbes1287 Words   |  6 Pagesknow how to balance and consider the nature of humankind and their rights. John Locke and Thomas Hobbes were both political philosophers who developed theories about how the government should work. They set up their theories around The Natural Law and the Social Contract Theory. Although John Locke and Thomas Hobbes had a similar goal, their beliefs and opinions were definitely not the same. John Locke and Thomas Hobbes both believed in the Natural Law and the Social Contract Theory. They both developedRead MoreThomas Hobbes And John Locke1346 Words   |  6 PagesContracts Thomas Hobbes and John Locke were two English political philosophers, who have had a lasting impact on modern political science. Thomas Hobbes and John Locke both spent much of their lives attempting to identify the best form of government. Locke and Hobbes were among the most prominent of theorists when it came to social contract and human rights. A Social Contract is an agreement among the members of a society to cooperate for social benefits. Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, are the twoRead MoreThomas Hobbes And John Locke928 Words   |  4 Pagesthere is no formed society, government, laws, safety, etc. both Thomas Hobbes and John Locke take this into perspective while introducing a political view. As illustrated by Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Karl Marx, and Friedrich Engels, they proposed political views on how human nature can prosper. 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Ethical Analysis on National DNA Profiling

Question: Discuss about the Ethical Analysis on National DNA Profiling. Answer: Introduction: The DNA profiling is the forensic method to get hold of individuals by their DNA characteristics. Here a string of DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid has been extracted from the cell in the body. It is them mixed with any restricted enzyme. This when processed has been revealing individuals blueprint (Maguire et al., 2014). The national DNA database is an important tool to fight against the crimes. The ethical dilemma regarding this is chosen here. Along with this, its benefits have been identified. The issues have been associated with possessing the National DNA Profiling (Wigan Clarke, 2013). The ACS or Australian Computer Society is the association for the professionals of Information and Communications technology. Its constitutions claim that its objectives have been to develop professional excellence in the field on IT or Information Technology. This further promotes the evolution of the technological resources of Information and Communication in Australia (Ryan, 2015). The report has been prepared analyzing the nationwide profiling from the perspective of ethical philosophies and the ACS code of ethics. Ethical dilemma: The ethical dilemma refers the complicated situation involving in apparent psychological conflicts. This occurs among the moral imperatives. Here, obeying one result in the transgressing of another. The factors that cause such problems in the organization are the deficiency of integrity. Here the staffs never embrace the honesty and fairness in their workplace. The conflicts of interests take place as an employee acquires benefits of any business situation. This is done for personal profit rather than his organizations interests. The employees are ought to deal with the pressures to continue his activities. He should help the organization to move towards success (Slade Prinsloo, 2013). The personal temptations are also considered to make the easiest way out. At the end of the day, the employees are bound to face various dilemmas through their careers. The organizations might deliver proper information and training to them in assisting them to go for proper decisions. Pressure from the management comes as the culture of various companies is different. Some of the organizations stress profits and outcomes above everything. In such scenario, the management goes blind eyed towards the ethical breaches. The mentality of such companies is like the endings justify all the means. The employees might get the hunger for attention. They might also be under financial pressure. They do not receive proper recognitions, at many times. The companies on the other hand might be reluctant in treating them. Here dilemmas occur which has been not only un-ethical but also illegal. Performing businesses with other organizations also produce scopes for breaches (Chabon et al., 2016). The pressure to retrieve the best deals or expenses from other businesses results in negotiating in poor faith to receive concession. This put the negotiators in difficult s ituations. These situations have been hard for the employees to struggle with especially in those cases where they have been unaware of the official guidelines of the company. Ethical analysis on having the National DNA Profiling: The ethical dilemma identified for the current study has been around the DNS databases. They have been limited through their connections with criminology. It has been depending upon the specific crimes under the investigations. The ethical problems have been required to be taken into consideration if its profits are to be maximized with minimizing the loss. One of the real-life cases where DNA profiling changed many things is described below: Discovering innocence on Death Row: George Ryan the governor of Illinois applied for DNA tests for the series of deaths during 1998. It was found that thirteen out of twenty-five could have been exonerated by the outcomes. He put moratorium in the executions. The study recommended various methods to prevent the demise of innocent ones ("5 Real-Life Cases Where DNA Profiling Changed Everything", 2017). The testing of DNA on the scenario of crime evidences has been considered conclusive in most cases. It is also known as the DNA testing, DNA typing and DNA fingerprinting. This has to be done from the growing tendency to utilize the genetic testing ("5 Real-Life Cases Where DNA Profiling Changed Everything", 2017). This analyzes the generic information of individuals. However, it has nothing to do with the full genome sequencing. Utilitarianism, its rule and act-based forms: The utilitarianism is one of the popular and influential theories on morality. It has been like the other types of consequentialism. The central idea of utilitarianism is that the consequences of actions rely on its effects. The rule utilitarianism is a type of that claims that any action can be considered right if it conforms to any rule leading to greatest benefit. The right or wrong consequences of any specific action is the function of exactitude of the rule. For the rule utilitarian, the rules correctness is indicated by the quantity of good brought by it as followed. The act utilitarianism is another form of utilitarianism. It declares that the act could be morally correct as it creates minimum happiness as compared to other acts performed at that instance. Classical utilitarians have defined happiness as pleasure and absence of sufferings. It has been lying on the basis of the utility principles. It can de described well by the famous phrase of Bentham that states the greatest good for greatest number (Alon Lehrer, 2017). The nature has put human civilization in two all-mighty masters. They are the pain and the pleasure. It has been over the human beings what they are choosing to go for. The rapid development and advancement of the human DNA Profiling technique has created concerns on social control, surveillance and the medical privacy. Specifically, while adopting the technology by the agencies of law enforcements with the development of huge databases of profiles of DNA has created issues. There has been arguments regarding transpired regarding the appropriate opportunities of the databases (Mulgan, 2014). Queries has been arising about keeping the databases restricted to the violent offenders, arrested by police, every citizen or convicted offender in any kind. Concerns have been raised about the categories in the fitting of juveniles. Utilitarian logic has dictated that bigger the size more useful the database becomes. The restrictions on the inclusiveness of the database have been carrying the ability to allow preventable crimes occurring potentially. The rights of the individuals discourse on opposite the side have been dictating few restrictions on databases. However, the unconvicted people have not merited inclusion to the databases. Deontology, its rule and act-based forms: The deontological ethics or simply deontology is the position of normative ethics judging the moral values of any action on the basis of rules. It could be further described as the rule based ethics or obligation or duty since the rule has been binding people on their duties. For a deontologist, the goodness or badness of any situation relies upon the consequences. For the rightness of a person, the moral norm has been there to conform it. The deontological ethics begin with the acknowledgement of the fact that the actions and their results have been independent of each other. As followed by Kant, one of the principles of deontology has been that the human beings possess rationalistic quality differentiating them from the animals. Moreover, the human beings must be ends-in-themselves not the reason for end (Sacco et al., 2016). The making on decisions on the best for more people could turn horrible results for the minorities. The deontologists have been talking against that. This could be prevented by considering moral values of each person equally. The rule based deontology said that the categorical imperative has been the founding stone of the moral obligations. It always acts on the rule that every person has been the end-in-themselves. The other principle behind this has been acting upon the applied university and for every person (Rousseau, 2013). The universality and impartiality of the rule based deontology could be maintained if everybody follows the distinguished imperative. Everyone must be treated well as the similar rule applies to everyone universally. In the act based deontology the analyzing of the circumstances of every person indicate the morally proper approach of action to be taken. Here the overriding duties are to be identified. The seven duties of prima facie suggested are the reparation, self-improvement, beneficence, fidelity, justice, gratitude and non- malfeasance. This weakens the impartiality and universality (Murphy, 2016). Now, a statement arises, that claim that if one has nothing to hole up, there has been nothing to worry. Alternatively, it could be said that if anyone has something to be scared of, then might acquire reasons to withhold. The statement searches for a justification for restricting the usage of the forensic DNA Database in fear. This statement has various deontological concerns. It alludes to the personal rights of privacy and autonomy. The individuals must be deciding about the adding of personal data in the databases. Social Contract: In the context of organizations, the contractarianism has been appealing to the businesses. The valuation of several moral factors has been involved by the decision making morally. The organizations must possess own legitimate aims to peruse. The moral right especially in the case of human rights has been significant in maximum moral deliberations in the businesses. The primary belief of the contractarianism is the state of the nature. According to it, every human being has been self-interested. They could only survive by the social bonding. It motivates the moral behavior. Agreements are contractual on which the moral systems are developed among the individuals. The social contracts have been developed as the early hunters had formed groups (Mansell, 2015). Thus the customs of community were developed. Unwritten agreement took place. Thus the honesty leads to trust. Thus the social contract came into being for culture and community. Its advantages lie in more social cohesion. It pro ves that lying, cheating and stealing has not been ethical. It develops the ethical behavior norms. Ultimately better peace in mind is reached. There has been a rising argument stating that the using of DNA profiling has infringed over the constitutional rights of the people to privacy. However, as claimed by various law officials, the benefits of the database have been giving the society to exceed individuals rights. This dilemma could be easily identified with the social contract. According to the contract, every person must give up some rights for achieving overall security (Skyrms, 2014). The depriving of rights to the privacy of individuals DNA could be considered to be one of those forfeited rights. The individuals must measure the benefits he has been gaining from the past and present or the future profile of the criminals DNA. It has been present in the database and the disadvantage has been having within themselves (Steverson, Rutherford Buller, 2013). However, the disadvantages would be more significant than the advantages as the private organizations develop access to that database. Then, they might use the data for discriminatory means. Character Based: This is another standard to evaluate the moral behavior. Here the acquisition of good traits of character is searched for. It sets the criteria for development of characters for every person. This has been also aligned with cultural and spiritual influences. According to this approach, a virtuous person must perform ethical things intuitively (Peterson Mueller, 2013). It has been agent-oriented lying on moral characters and development of the agent. This ethical system has been flourished in those cultures where emphasis has been placed over the life of community than on individuals responsibilities. In the western nations, emphasis has been placed on the vitality of individuals rights and autonomy (Wright, 2015). The DNA bar-coding is a promising method to identify people through every stages of life. A universal threshold of the values of the genetic distances differentiates taxonomic groups that cannot be identified. Alternatively, the approaches of DNA bar-coding are character based (Crossan et al., 2013). By this method, human beings could be identified by the presence or absence of distinct nucleotide substitutions or character states in the sequence of DNA. ACS code of ethics: The essential property of any profession in Australia has been the requirement of the members to follow the ACS code of ethics. For the Australian Computer Society or ACS, their code has been established as the code of professional conduct. These rules applies to the members of ACS those has been working with DNA database in the sector of ICT or Information and Communications Technology (Leicester, 2016). It has found six central values of ethics with the requirements associated with the professional conducts. The society needs its members to follow the values. They must act with responsibilities. Their performance might include integrity in all professional dealing. The code also has relevance to the legislation of professional standards in protecting DNA databases. As anyone fail to follow the rule, this has been regarded as the professional negligence. The code should be quoted through any expert witness. Then, assessment on the professional conduct is delivered. The inability to follow the code also results in disciplinary action taken by ACS. ACS members are expected to uphold and propagate dignity, effectiveness and honor to be professional. Moreover, it entails to be the good citizen, and act under the law. The members must be conformance to some specific ACS values in protecting DNA databases. The first one is the primacy of the interest of public (Warren et al., 2016). The member should put the public interests above the business, sectional and personal interests. Secondly, quality of life is to be enhanced. Members are expected to intensify the quality of the life of the people affected by their work in improving DNA databases. Then, the members must be honest enough in representing their products, services, techniques and knowledge. Next, they should work with competence and diligence for the stakeholders. Further, they should enhance both their own individuals professional development and the staffs. Finally, the members are supposed to strengthen ACSs integrity and bring respect of every member towards each other in protecting DNA databases (Burmeister, 2013). Recommendations: Some of the recommendations of having national DNA database are: The kinds of the DNA profiles of crime-related stains could be included in the database, which has not been limited. The number of people in a database who has been the donors of the stains should be as bigger as that financially possible. The managers of the databases should develop criteria for involving the partial profiles of DNA. This would help to get an acceptable balance. The profiles of DNA created by the previous commercial skills might be updated. In order to develop the scopes to find relevant match with the partial crime stains, the DNA profiles could be preferentially loaded. The databases custodians must have regular contacts with their DNA profile suppliers for exchanging data regarding the technical and legal developments. Let the DNA profiles created from the lower levels of DNA has been imported in the database. In such cases they must be recognizable with any near matched strategy. Composite profiles of DNA could be developed from the profiles of DNA created from the similar extract of DNA (Galea, 2016). Conclusion: Every company should possess ethical policies spelling out the penalties due to infractions. The management should lead by setting examples. They must show that they have been taking the ethics seriously. The violators are to be punished with possible termination and suspension. DNA profiling is the small collection of variations of DNA. It has been very likely distinguishable in every other unrelated individuals. Thus is unique to every person like the fingerprints The DNA databases have raised critical issues regarding the human rights and their privacy. The safeguards have been required. DNA has been utilized to track the individuals and their relatives. Thus it could be easily misused by any individual or government in infiltration is done into the system. For effectively track any suspect, the records of DNA are to be clinked with other records in the computers. This includes the arrest record that might refuse VISA to anyone or provide job or discriminate against these people. The sample and profiles of DNA has the private information regarding genetic and physical relationships. This includes the paternity and the non-paternity. The effective protection includes the legal limitations on the situations where the DNA and its associated data could be gathered and retained. Lastly it should be reminded that DNA has not been a foolproof. Hence the methods also require to be put to assure the misleading interpretations of the proofs of DNA. This does not lead in the miscarriage of justice. References: 5 Real-Life Cases Where DNA Profiling Changed Everything. (2017). The Forensic Outreach Library. Retrieved 26 April 2017, from https://forensicoutreach.com/library/5-real-life-cases-where-dna-profiling-changed-everything/ Alon, S., Lehrer, E. (2017). Subjective Utilitarianism: Decisions in a social context. Burmeister, O. K. (2013). Achieving the goal of a global computing code of ethics through an international-localisation hybrid.Ethical Space,10(4), 25-32. Chabon, J. J., Simmons, A. D., Lovejoy, A. F., Esfahani, M. S., Newman, A. M., Haringsma, H. J., ... Harding, T. C. (2016). Circulating tumour DNA profiling reveals heterogeneity of EGFR inhibitor resistance mechanisms in lung cancer patients.Nature communications,7. Crossan, M., Mazutis, D., Seijts, G., Gandz, J. (2013). Developing leadership character in business programs.Academy of Management Learning Education,12(2), 285-305. Galea, D. (2016). The legality of DNA databases in the criminal investigation. Leicester, N. (2016). Ethics in the IT Profession: Does a Code of Ethics have an Effect on Professional Behaviour?. Maguire, C. N., McCallum, L. A., Storey, C., Whitaker, J. P. (2014). Familial searching: A specialist forensic DNA profiling service utilising the National DNA Database to identify unknown offenders via their relativesThe UK experience.Forensic Science International: Genetics,8(1), 1-9. Mansell, S. (2015).Book Review: Rejoinder to Veldmans review of Capitalism, Corporations and the Social Contract: A Critique of Stakeholder Theory(Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 271-275). A. Pullen, C. Rhodes (Eds.). Sage UK: London, England: Sage Publications. Mulgan, T. (2014).Understanding utilitarianism. Routledge. Murphy, S. P. (2016). Contemporary Philosophical Faces of Deontology and ConsequentialismJohn Rawls and Peter Singer. InResponsibility in an Interconnected World(pp. 61-87). Springer International Publishing. Peterson, T., Mueller, G. B. (2013). What is evolutionary novelty? Process versus character based definitions.Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B: Molecular and Developmental Evolution,320(6), 345-350. Rousseau, J. J. (2013). Ethics and deontology in public administration. Ryan, A. (2015). 16. Utilitarianism and Bureaucracy: The Views of JS Mill. Sacco, D. F., Brown, M., Lustgraaf, C. J., Hugenberg, K. (2016). The Adaptive Utility of Deontology: Deontological Moral Decision-Making Fosters Perceptions of Trust and Likeability.Evolutionary Psychological Science, 1-8. Skyrms, B. (2014).Evolution of the social contract. Cambridge University Press. Slade, S., Prinsloo, P. (2013). Learning analytics: Ethical issues and dilemmas.American Behavioral Scientist,57(10), 1510-1529. Steverson, B. K., Rutherford, M. W., Buller, P. F. (2013). New venture legitimacy lies and ethics: an application of social contract theory.J. Eth. Entrep,3, 73-92. Warren, M., Warren, M., Lucas, R., Lucas, R. (2016). Ethics and ICT: Why all the fuss?.Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in Society,14(2), 167-169. Wigan, M. R., Clarke, R. (2013). Big data's big unintended consequences.Computer,46(6), 46-53. Wright, T. A. (2015). Distinguished scholar invited essay: reflections on the role of character in business education and student leadership development.Journal of Leadership Organizational Studies,22(3), 253-264.